Developing language skills

Communicative competence

William Little Wood, in his book Communicative Language Teaching (1981, 6), stated that there are four broad domains of skills which make up a person’s communicative competence, and which must be recognized in foreign language teaching.

1. The learner must attain as high a degree as possible of linguistic competence. That is, he must develop skill  in manipulating the linguistic system to the point where he can use it spontaneously and flexibly in order to express his intended message.
2. The learner must distinguish between the forms which he has mastered as part of his linguistic competence, and the communicative functions that they perform. In other words, items mastered as part of a linguistic system must also be understood  as part of communicative system.
3. The learner must develop skills and strategy for using language to communicate meanings as effectively as possible in concrete situations. He must learn to use feedback to judge his success, and if necessary, remedy failure by using a different language.
4. The learner must become aware of the social meaning of language forms. For many learners, this may not entail the ability to vary their own speech to suit different social circumstance, but rather the ability to use generally acceptable forms and avoid potentially offensive ones.

Littlewood (1981,6) also presents a methodological frame-work which makes a distinction between pre-communicative and communicative activities.

Precommunicative activities: + Structural activities

                                                + Quasi-communicative activities

Communicative activities : + Functional communicative activities

                                             + Social interaction activities

           Pre-communicative activities aim to give students fluent control over linguistic forms, so that the lower- level processes will be capable of unfolding automatically in respond to higher-level decisions based on meanings. Although the activities may emphasize the links between forms and meanings, the main criteria for success is whether the student produces acceptable language.

      In communicative activities, the production of linguistic forms become subordinate to higher-level decisions related to the communication of meanings. The student is thus expected to increase his/ her skill, starting from an intended meaning, in selecting suitable language forms from his/her total repertoire and producing them fluently.

     The roles of teachers in the communicative approach are the followings:

1. As general overseers of their students’ learning, they must aim to coordinate the activities so that these form a coherent progression leading toward greater communicative ability.
2. As classroom managers, they are responsible for grouping activities into lessons and for ensuring that these are satisfactorily organized at the practical level.
3. They may perform the familiar role of language instructor, presenting new language, exercising direct control over their students’ performance, and evaluating and correcting it.
4. They allow learning to take place through independent activities.
5. They sometimes participate in an activity as co-communicator.

            Littlewood presents two types of communicative activities: functional communicative activities and social interaction activities. The principle underlying the functional communicative activities is that the teacher structures the situation so that the students have to overcome an information gap or solve a problem. These functional activities on sharing information include identifying sequences or locations, discovering missing features, discovering secrets, communicating patterns or pictures, communicating models, discovering differences, following directions, reconstructing story sequences, and pooling information to solve a problem. Processing information is also another type of functional instrument, as well as a form of social behavior.

    Social interaction activities define clearly the social context. They approximate the kind of communication situation encountered outside the classroom. Some activities are conversation or discussion sessions, dialog and role plays on school experience, simulation and role playing, and improvisation.

Language learning

Listening

    Listening is one of the four important skills in learning language; the other are speaking, writing and grammar skills. Some educators claim that listening is the most neglected skill in the classroom because there is a serious lack of programs and materials on developing listening skills. There is also a crucial need to provide teachers with resources on methodology and with activities and manuals specifically designed for the development of listening skills.

Classification of listening

    Dorothy Grant Hennings (1978) suggests that listening in  classrooms be an active, involved process with students reacting and responding rather than passively receiving. Active listening goes beyond reception and even retention of words and ideas heard. It requires listeners to do something with those words and ideas to express themselves in some ways. She classifies listening into three categories: informational listening ( gathering information); critical listening ( analyzing and judging critically); and appreciative listening ( appreciating). These three categories blend in real-life listening.

Informational listening

    Informational listening occurs as people understand, remember, and respond to the content of an oral communication.

Assign to the students the following activities on informational listening. Remember not to require any writing except when specified.

Activity 1. Making Introductions

   Ask the students to work in pairs. Have them interview each other to get personal information such as name, address, hobbies, favorites ( e.g., food, music, book), and the like. Allow each a minute to introduce his/her partner to the class.

Activity 2.Carrying the message.

   Have the students form four to five groups and let them choose their leader. Each leader will then pick  a rolled sheet of paper on which instructions are written. Have the leader read the instructions to his/ her members. Instructions on each sheet should differ ( e.g. preparing for a party, making a kite, shopping in a supermarket). The leaders must be given only 2 minutes to give clear instructions, after which a member in the group must repeat the instructions most completely and accurately wins.

Activity 3. Summing up.

  Assign several students as reporters to cover the different important events ( e.g. foundation day, Christmas celebration, book week).Ask them to give their news briefly in mock broadcast. Assign the rest of the class to listen and come up with a brief summary of the events reported on.

Activity 4. Making Story Outlines.

   Let the students form three groups and subdivide each group into three subgroups, namely, Introduction, Middle, Final. Ask the class to listen carefully the story the teacher reads. Tell each subgroup to decide how best to illustrate ( i.e, draw, sketch) the beginning, the middle, and the end of the story. The Middle group can have more than one sketch ( if so desired) to illustrate the middle part of the story. Then ask the subgroups to cooperate in briefly relating the story.

Activity 5. Taking Notes

 Have the students listen to a taped ( or read) lecture. Ask them to take down notes on the important main ideas and supporting details. Call on some of them to read their notes, and ask the rst of the class to complete/ correct their own notes.

Activity 6. ( Recalling) Sequencing Events.

  Have the class listen to a story or procedure with features a series of interrelated events or steps. Then ask them to recall the events or steps  in their correct sequence.

Critical listening

    Critical listening is of two kinds: critical analytical and critical judge mental. People apply critical analytical listening when they methodically examine words, ideas, and nonverbal components. They listen critically to identify the main ideas and subordinate ideas; establish the relationship between ideas; generalize from the ideas; distinguish between fact and fantasy or fact and opinion; identify a speaker’s feelings or point of view; and interpret gestures, intonations and facial expressions used by a speaker to communicate feelings and point of view.

     The following activities have been designed to develop critical analytical listening.

Activity 1. Word Play

Have the students listen to an excerpt of a story ( or play) and give adjectives that describe the characters in the selection. Let them share their work with others who will evaluate whether the adjectives given fit the characters.

Activity 2. Getting the Song’s Message

   Make the students listen to a song, and have them to list words that communicate its message. They also draw or sketch a picture or symbol that convey the song’s message.

Activity 3. Figuring the Moral of a Fable or Parable

  Have the students to listen to a reading of a modern fable or parable. Let them figure out the lesson learned and how this was brought out. Also, ask them to cite a parable from the Bible or an old fable ( e.g. Aesop’s) with a similar moral.

Activity 4. Noting Similarities and Differences

   Assign the students to listen to a reading of two or three articles on a particular national issue. Let them explain the similarities and differences between the viewpoints of the writers on the issue.

Critical judge mental listening

    Critical judge mental listening occurs when people make decisions about the rightness or wrongness, harmfulness or harmlessness of facts and ideas, and the way both facts and ideas have been presented.

     Have the students work on the activities that follow to improve their skills on critical jugdmental listening.

Activity 1. Reacting to Advertisements

    Before working on this activity, review the different types of propaganda devices: glittering generalities, name calling, transfer, testimonial, plain folks, card stacking and bandwagan. Have the students listen to a taped advertisement. Ask them to judge the accuracy of the statements heard. Ask them if they believe what the advertisement says and they would buy the product being advertised. Have them explain why or why not.

Activity 2. Identifying Personalities

Ask a student to describe a popular personality ( e.g., in TV, radio, film, sports, ect.) without mentioning the person’s name. Make him/her tell her/ his classmates why he/she likes  or dislikes this personality. The listeners can question the evaluative statements and also guess who the personality is.

Activity 3. Evaluating Story Actions

Ask the class to listen to a story ( or excerpt of a story) and judge the rightness or wrongness of the actions or situations that make up the story ( or excerpt). Let the students justify their answers.

Activity 4. Noting Euphemisms

Have the students listen carefully to the set of terms in each letter. Explain that the terms mean the same. Let them identify which term they prefer to use and explain why.

      a. thrift shop                            - secondhand

                                                       goods store

      b. infancipating                       - pregnant

      c. restroom                              - toilet

      d. dentures                              - fasle teeth

      e. sanitation engineer              - garbage collector

      f. utily man                              - janitor

      g. landscape architect              - gardener

Appreciative Listening

  Appreciative listening occur when people listen to, enjoy, and understand the moods expressed in stories poems, plays, and music, and conjure mental pictures through picturesque language.

    Appreciative listening can be developed through the following varied activities.

Activity 1. Sound Words

1. Read a selection to the class. Have the students identify three objects or animals in the selection and the sounds that these objects or animals make or are identified with.

Examples:     cat                      - purr, meow

                      car                     - broom, roar

     b. Make the students identify words that represent sounds which are onomatopoeic.

            Examples:    chirp        crash       jingle           beep

  Activity 2. Mood setting

Ask the class to listen to a story or poem read while music is played in the background or as an accompaniment. Have them note whether the music blends in rhythm and mood with the selection. Ask: Does the music enhance your reading of the selesction? If not, why?

Activity 3. Chalk Talk

Have the students listen to a storyteller who draws or sketches on the chalkboard a scene that depicts the story he/ she is telling. Ask them afterwards what effect the simultaneous acts had on them.

Activity 4. Sound Images

Have the class listen to a taped music with their eyes closed. Ask: What is the music trying to tell you? Do the sounds describe scenes, mood, feelings, and story? What images do you see in your mind?

    David H. Russel and  Elizabeth F. Russel (1959) suggest that teachers be aware of the  different ways of listening and the variety of listening aids. This is because different amounts of involvement in listening can occur at different levels ranging from inexact (I) to detailed (D), from aimless (A) to purposeful (P), and from passive (Pa) to creative (Cr).

DEVELOPING LISTENING SKILLS

With guidance, a child’s listening experience may be selective, purposeful, accurate, critical, and creative. Here are some listening aids to help a listener achieve a meaningful experience.

1. Phrasing – a student starts a sentence, another adds to it, and another does the same, each student repeating the first part and adding his/her own with pauses between the phrases.
2. Main ideas – students may read selections to the class from different sources. The listeners may be asked to respond by selecting a tilee for a paragraph, writing their own title, identifying the main idea from several given, and stating the main idea in their own words.
3. Gossip – the teacher calls for ten players and asks them to form a circle. These students pass a message from one to another. The teacher starts the message by whispering it to a player. This message is passed from player to player in the same manner. The last player tells the group what he/ she thinks he/ she heard. The first player repeats the orginal message. The other students tell where the message was changed.
4. What is wrong? – the teacher tells a story in four to six sentences. One of the sentences will not make the sense. The students are asked to listen carefully and tell the sentence that is not part of the story.
5. Radio programs – the students discuss their favorite radio programs. They compare several types of radio programs. They may listen to the same radio program in class. Then they may discuss and give comments about it.
6. Context clues – the students use context clues in determing the meaning of sentences. The teacher gives a sentence orally and the students supply the missing word.

Examples:

a.  He got the jewelry of the rich woman when no one was around. He was a ………..

Answer: thief

     b.  Nipa huts, animals, trees, and farm implements floated down the streets. The whole barrio was  

       destroyed by a ……………                  

Answer: flood

      7. Making predictions – the teacher reads short paragraphs with a clear- cut sequence of events and

     asks students to state what will happen next; then they give reasons for their predictions.

8. Stagging a scene – the teacher stages a carefully rehearsed incident with emotional overtones in front of the class, then asks the class to write a description of the scene. Choose a scene that is value – oriented and suited to the level of the class.

Wilga Rivers (1978) claims that in learning to listen, there are two basic levels to be considered:

           For the level of recognition, the student has to learn these features:

            . The phonological code – phonemes, rhythm, stress, intonation patterns, and emotional ovetones

            variation ( including reflections of regional, social, and dialectal variations).

            .The syntactic code – word classes, word order, and interralationship of words.

            .The semantic code – word meaning, conotation, culture, idioms, expletives, cliches,          colloquialisms, fasle starts, pauses, and files.

   Rivers also suggests four stages for teaching listening skill in the elementary, intermediate, and advanced levels of language learning. They are as follows:

1. Identification – perception of sounds and phrases, identifying these directly and holistically with their meanings.
2. Identification and selection without retention - listening for the pleasure of comprehension, extracting sequential meanings without being expected to demonstrate comprehension through active use of language.
3.  Identification and guided selection with short-term retention – students are given some prior indication of what they are to listen for; they demonstrate their comprehension immediately in some active fashion.
4. Identification and selection with long- term retention – students demonstrate their comprehension, or use the material they have comprehended, after the listening experience has been completed; or they engage in an activity which requires recall of material learned some time previously.

Here are some activities for each stage:

1. Identification:

a. Listening to songs and poems for the pleasure of the sounds.

b. Doing aural- discrimination exercises.

c. Listening to segments of dialog to be learned.

2. Identification and selection without retention.

a. Playing games involving mining of words and phrases learned.

b. Listening to conversation- facilation dialogs, songs, or poems already learned.

c. Listening to the teacher as he/ she gives some background information on the topic, then tells an anecdote or describes an experience.

3. Identification and guided selection with short- term retention.

         Llistening to a dialog or study using recombination of vocabulary and structure learned, then checking appropriate multiple – choice  answers supplied beforehand.

4. Identification and selection with long- term retention.

a. Listening to skits prepared by other students.

b. Checking answers to aural questions given before or after a passage for listening.

c. Listening to and discussing oral reports of other students.

     William Littlewood suggests some activities which can help learners develop their listening skills. The activities are grouped according to the kind of response that the students must produce.

1. Performing physical tasks – students are alerted to look for specific meaning related to the task which they must perform.

a. Identifiaction and selection:

- The students look at a set of pictures. They listen to a description or dialog and select the picture(s) which the spoken text refers to.

- The students may be asked to identify a wanted person, movie personality, or famous singer described in a radio message.

b. Sequence

- The students identify successive pictures that are dsecribed in order to place them in their correct sequence.

- The students are required to place items not in a sequence but in their appropriate location on a plan of a house or town. They may also follow a route on a map.

c. Drawing and construction – the students listen to a discription or discussion. They draw the scene which is describe or referrred to. They may be provided with an outline which they have to complete.

d. Performing other actions – the students are required to reform or mime other actions as instructed.

2. Transferring information – the students are required to look for a specific types of meaning. They extract revelant information from the text in order to transfer it to some other form such as table, chart, or diagram.

3. Reformulating and evaluating information – the students are asked to listen to the text as a whole. They are asked to reformulate the important content in their own words, in the form of notes or summary. They also evaluate the information which may serve as stimulus for group discussion or other classroom tasks.

      David M. Palmer (1982) suggests basic information transfer strategies in listening. The students are are required to look for specific types of meaning. They extract relevant information in one verbal form and transfer it to another form such as diagrams, tables, graphs, charts, lines or maps and lables. Here are some basic information transfer strategies.

A. Maps and Plans

In this type the students has to lable, mark positions, or plot routes on a map or plan.

B. Grid and tables

C. Diagrams and Charts

D. Diaries and calendars

E. Miscellaneous Lists, Forms, Coupons, and the Like.

Lukong N. Nicolas (1988) claims that the exercise most widely used by those who try to teach listening comprehension involves following steps.

1. The teacher chooses the passage that he/ she thinks is suitable for his/her group of students and sets comprehension questions on it.
2. He/ she introduces the text by either giving its background or putting it in context if he/ she feels this is necessary.
3. He/ she writes guide questions on the chalk board or dictates to the students. These are questions that require an understanding of the general ideas in the passage rather than detailed knowledge.
4. The teacher reads the text to the students for the first time and, after giving them time to answer the guide questions, discusses the answers with them.
5. He/ she either dictates or writes more detailed questions on the chalkboard and then reads the passages to the students a second time.
6. The students are given time either to answer the second set of questions in writing or simply think about them. The teacher then discusses the answers with them.
7. The final step, which is optional, could consist of the teacher reading the text aloud once more.

                   If the text is long, it can be divided into sections and each section treated as a whole passage, with the teacher and the students going through all the above steps. An alternative exercise on the listening passage consists of the following steps:

1. using the title as the trigger, the teacher asks the students to suggest the ideas they think might be discussed in the passage. He/ she write these on the chalkboard in the form of notes.
2. The teacher then reads the text to the students while they try to find out how many of the ideas do in fact occur in the passage.
3. The class discusses its findings and probably rounds up the study of the text with another reading of it by the teacher. In the first listening – passage exercise, as well as in the second, the teacher could, of course, have the passage prerecorded on tape, read etheir by himself/herself or by someone else.

Randall Rockey (1983) suggests that the Barrett Taxonomy of reading comprehension can be used as a guide for developing structures and leveled listening comprehesion exercises. In brief, the texonomy consists of four categories, each one designed to describe a discrete subset of skills:

1. Literal Recognition or recall

1. Recognition or recall of details.
2. Recognition or recall of main ideas.
3. Recognition or recall of sequence.
4. Recognition or recall of comparisons.
5. Recognition or recall of charater traits.

2. Inference

1. Inferring supporting details.
2. Inferring the main ideas.
3. Inferring sequence.
4. Inferring comparisons.
5. Inferring cause – and – effect relationships.
6. Inferring charater traits.
7. Predicting outcomes.
8. Inferring figurative language.

3. Evaluation

1. judgments of reality or fantasy.
2. Judgments of fact or opinion.
3. Judgments of adequacy or validity.
4. Judgments of appropriateness.
5. Judgments of worth, desirability, or acceptability.

4. Appreciation

1. Emotional response to plot or theme.
2. Identification with the speakers’ use of language.
3. Reactions to the speakers’ use of language.
4. Imagery.

Celestre Zappolo (1985) presents some communication game which put extra emphasis on the task of the listener:

1. The Blindfolded Walk – This is done by pairs of students with whole - class attention. The grammar/ function focus is on understanding directions. Student 1 guides blindfolded student 2 toward him/her through a maze of obstacles (chairs) while he/she remains stationary at one end. The goal is to avoid bumping into or knocking over any of the obstacles.
2. Picture Dictations – This is done either by a pairs of students or a group with one student instructing the others and two students drawing individually. The grammar/ function focus is on understanding instructions. Student 1, using a simple line drawing, directs student 2 to duplicate it by means of series of instructions (e.g., “Draw one long straight line across the bottom of the page ”). Students work back – to – back. The goal is to duplicate the original sketch as clearly as possible.
3. Menu completion – This is done by pairs of students with different incomplete version of the same menu (Prices of food items might be missing). Each seeks to complete his/ her menu by asking questions of and listening to his/ her partner. The goal is to complete both versions. The grammar/ function focus is understanding information.

Lorraine Valdez Pierce (1988) suggests that for listening and speaking activities at all levels, the teacher should provide for prelistening, listening, and postlistening sessions.At intermediate and advanced levels, these might take the following form:

1. Prelistening

a. Set the students’ expectations about what they are going to hear by using visual aids (e.g. pictures, photos, and drawings.)

b. Set the theme/ topic/ setting by dicussing it with regard to the students’ culture.

c. Give a reason/ purpose for listening; assign a concrete task to be completed by them.

2. Listening

a. Make the students listen the first time for general comprehension.

b. Have them listen the second time, pausing after meaningful “chunks” of language to discuss what has been said and what will follow, and checking for comprehension.

c. Make them listen several  more times, stopping to answer their questionsand to create pauses for language processing.

d. Allow time for completion of the listening task. The students should be responding in some physical way to the listening passage, either by indicating appropriate pictures or answers to multiple-choice questions, completing a cloze exercise, filling in the blanks of incomplete sentences or of a grid, or writing short answers to questions.

3. Post listening

a. Discuss the students’ reactions to the content of the listening selections.

b. Ask them thought-provoking questions to encourage discussion about how they relate to the speaker’s message.

c. Set the students to work in pairs to create dialogs or synopses based on the listening selection.

d. Assign reading and writing activities based on the listening passage.

Approaches and methods in communication arts:

                           An overview

          Human being need to communicate thoughts and feelings to other of their kind. The messages may be expressed, or transmitted, and received through any of the perception channels: visuals (sight), auditory (hearing), olfactory (smell), gustatory (taste), and tactile (touch). It is this need to share ideas which gave rise to language. Thus, language is defined as the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings by means of vocal sounds and written symbols, and the communication of such sounds to which meaning is attributed.

What is communication art?

The term communication arts or language arts encompasses a wide range of school activities designed to help students become knowledgeable about language so that they can use it effectively. Communication art suggests that language learning involves artistic as well as functional skills.

The diagram on page 2 shows that communication arts can be classified according to:

1. the task involved – listening, speaking, reading or writing
2. the role of the individual – receiving (reception) or expressing (production) a message
3. the manner of communication – oral or written

It also shows that although different skills are involved, they are interrelated. The implication is that mastery of one aspect enriches as well as reinforces mastery of the other aspects.

The communication arts teacher

The effective communication arts teacher has the following characteristics:

1. Is a competent user of the language? A good knowledge background (academic preparation) gives a sense of confidence and facilities creative thinking in a teacher. The teacher’s ability to conceptualize the structure and function of the language he/ she teaches enables him/ her to identify the knowledge and skills that students need and to break complex concepts and abilities into lesson-sized experiences. This means the teacher is a good role model.
2. Has the ability to interact with students? The teacher needs to know how to diagnose, plan, and instruct in consistent and meaningful ways, to stimulate his/her students’ interest in language, and to motivate them to learn the skills they need.
3. Has a healthy interest in literature? It is important that teachers effectively convey the idea that reading is enjoyable and that books are sources of enjoyment as well as of knowledge. Wholesome literature has much to offer. It has the power to educate the human heart and to develop a fully literate person.
4. Has a positive attitude toward the communication arts curriculum. The thoughts and attitudes of the teacher are communicated to his/ her students even when these are not stated directly. The teacher, therefore, must be interested in the fascinating world of language, for interest begets interest.
5. Applies various methods/ approaches and strategies of teaching. To meet individual needs, the teacher must be able to identify each students’ entry skills and knowledge and later on modify instruction based on:
   1. continuous evaluation of the student’s competencies and learning needs
   2. analysis of habits that the student has consciously or unconsciously developed
   3. evidences of attitudes and interest in learning

Teaching the communication arts

         There are three levels of conceptualization and organization identified by Anthony (1963): approach, method, and technique or strategy. The arrangement of these levels is hierarchical, i.e., the techniques carry out a method which is consistent with an approach.

Approach → method → technique, technique, technique.

         An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. It is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about something to be learned are specified.

         A method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material no part of which is based upon, the selected approach. It is the level at which theory is put into practice and choices are made about the particular skills and content to be taught, and the order by which the content will be presented.

         Technique is the level at which classroom procedures are described. It is a medium of implementation (eg: a particular trick, strategy, or contrivance) used to accomplish an immediate objective.

          A brief description of the salient features of the major approaches and methods in teaching V and reading follows. Teachers of communication arts will find this information useful in their choice of strategies to fit their purpose and the needs of their students.

Grammar translation method

Goal

1. To read literature in the target language
2. To memorize grammar rules and vocabulary of the target V

Characteristics

1. The major focuses are reading and writing with little or no systematic attention to listening and speaking.
2. Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading text used. Words are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and memorization.
3. The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences from and into the target language.
4. Grammar is taught deductively. Rules are presented and studied then practiced through translation exercises.
5. The students’ native language is used to explain new items in the target language and to enable comparisons between the foreign language and the students’ native language.
6. Accuracy is emphasized. Students are expected to attain high standards in translation.

Sample activities:

1. The students are asked to translate, for example, the Spanish poem “Adios Patria Adorada” by Dr. Jose Rizal into English or into the native language, or vice versa.
2. The students answer the questions in the target language based on their comprehension of a story read.
3. The students are directed to find synonyms and/ or antonyms of given words in an essay.
4. The teacher helps the students to recognize cognates by learning the spelling or sounds pattern that correspond to the target language.
5. The students are asked to memorize a list of target language vocabulary words and their native language equivalent.
6. Grammar rules and examples are presented. Then the students memorize the rules and give original examples (eg: rules for forming the plural of nouns).

Direct method

Goal: to communicate in the target language.

Characteristics:

1. A foreign language is taught without the use of the students’ native language.
2. There are extensive drills in listening, imitating, and speaking so that the students’ uses of the different forms of the language become second nature to them.
3. There is no memorization of grammar rules. Grammar is taught inductively by generalizing from examples.
4. Oral communication skills are developed in a carefully graded progression and organized around question and answer exchanges between the teacher and the student.
5. New teaching points are introduced orally. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.
6. Concrete expressions are taught through demonstration, objects, or pictures. Abstract words are taught by association of ideas.
7. The emphasis is on correct pronunciation and grammar.
8. The teacher directs the class activities, but the students and the teacher are partners in the teaching and learning processes.

Sample activities:

1. The students read aloud a passage on a historical event in the Philippines.
2. Using a map, the students point out places where the event took place before recounting it.
3. The teacher asks questions in the target language on the passages read, to which the students reply in complete sentences, or the students ask questions to which the teacher or other students give their answers.
4. The teacher drills the students on the pronunciation of certain terms (eg: names of persons, places, events).
5. The teacher corrects grammar errors made by the students and briefly explains why such corrections are necessary.
6. The students work on exercises using the prepositions taught in the lesson.
7. The teacher corrects the paragraph each student wrote on a historical figure. Errors to be corrected will include those made on the mechanics of writing such as spelling, punctuation and capitalization.

Audio- lingual approach

Goal:

1. To use the target language communicatively.
2. To master the target language to enable the students to use it automatically as new habits are formed and native language habits are overcome.

Characteristics:

1. New vocabulary and structures are presented through dialogs which are learned through imitation and repetition.
2. The students interact through chain drills as role playing in dialogs all at the teacher’s direction.
3. Grammar is induced from models.
4. There is a set natural priority of skills- listening, speaking, reading, and writing- with emphasis on the first two skills.
5. Pronunciation is taught from the beginning, often with language laboratory work and minimal pair drills.
6. Emphasis is given to everyday speech and a graded syllabus is used, from simple to difficult linguistic structures.
7. The native language is not used in the classroom.
8. Discrete-point tests are given to check the students’ knowledge of structure.
9. The teacher strives to prevent student error by predicting trouble spots and tightly controlling what to teach the students to say.

Sample activities:

1. The teacher reads out a dialog between two people while the students listen carefully.
2. The students (as a group) repeat the dialog after the teacher. They continue to do this until mastery of the dialog is achieved.
3. The teacher initiates a chain drill where the students practice the lines of the dialog individually.
4. The teacher gives clues for substitutions to be made in the dialog already mastered, starting with simple substitutions before using correlative and moving-slot substitutions. Pictures or objects can be used as clues.
5. The teacher introduces a pronunciation lesson on expected trouble areas, i.e., based on knowledge of the native language.
6. The teacher conducts a grammar exercise (e.g: a little vs a few) to show the difference between mass and count nouns (until the students master the lesson because no rule is given by the teacher).
7. The teacher writes a dialog on the chalkboard which the students copy.

The silent way

Goal

1. To use language for self-expression
2. To develop independence from the teacher
3. To develop inner criteria for correctness

Characteristics:

1. Teaching is subordinated to learning. The students are responsible for their own learning.
2. The teacher is silent most of the time but is very active in setting up situations and listening to students; he or she speaks only to give clues. Student-student interaction is encouraged.
3. The students begin with associating sounds in their native language to a sound-color chart. The teacher then provides situation to focus attention on structure. The students interact as each situation requires.
4. The teacher use errors made by the students as an index on where instruction on the target language is not effectively. He/ She adjusts instruction accordingly.
5. Translation is not used but the native language is considered a source on the students’ knowledge.
6. To encourage the development of inner criteria in the students, neither praise nor criticism is given by the teacher.
7. The teacher observes the students’ ability to transfer what they have learned to a new context. The students are expected to learn at different rates. They are also expected to make progress and not necessarily to speak perfectly. Errors are considered inevitable, a nature part of learning.

Sample activities:

1. The teacher points to five blocks of color without saying anything. The blocks represent the sounds of five English vowels close to the simple vowels of Filipino.
2. The teacher points again to the colored blocks and says /a/ as he/she points to the first block. The students are expected to say /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/ as the teacher points to each of the other blocks.
3. The teacher uses gestures to show the students how to modify the English sounds, but he/she does not articulate the new sounds.
4. The students learn the sounds of new blocks of color by calling out the names of their classmates.
5. The teacher points to a rod and then to three blocks of color on the sound- color chart.

Note: Caleb Gattegno (1972) makes use of colored wooden sticks called Cuisenairerods and a sound- color chart. The rods are of different lengths, while the chart has a black background and is covered with small rectangular blocks arranged in rows. Each block is of a different color, with catch rectangle representing one English sound.

“Suggestopedia”

Goal

To learn at accelerated pace of foreign language for everyday communication by tapping mental powers and overcoming psychological barriers.

Characteristics:

1. The power of suggestion is used to help the students eliminate the feeling that they can not succeed.
2. Learning is facilitated in a relaxed comfortable environment with dim lights and soft music.
3. The students’ imagination is used to aid learning. The students assume new names and new identities and respond to the teacher accordingly, using the target language in communicating.
4. Grammar and vocabulary are presented and explained but not discussed at length.
5. Meanings can be made clear through native language translation.
6. Communication takes place on two planes: the conscious, where the student pays attention to a dialog read (linguistic message), and the subconscious, where the music played as background suggests that learning is easy.
7. The arts such as music, song, and drama are integrated into the teaching.
8. At beginning levels errors are tolerated because emphasis is on content, but in later lessons these forms are correctly used by the teacher.
9. Evaluation is conducted on the students’ normal in class performance. No formal tests are given.

Sample activities:

1. The students are seated comfortably, lights are dimmed, and soft music is heard in the background. With their eyes closed, they listen to the teacher as he/she says “in, out, in, out” making them aware of their breaking.
2. The students go on an imaginary trip to another land (eg: American) with the teacher as a guide who describes the airplane flight, what they will see when they first land, and how they will feel at the airport. The teacher tells the students to listen to the conversations and questions they hear, as they imagine themselves replying to the questions of customs and immigration officials.
3. The students are shown a poster on which are written several English names which they learn to pronounce. Each chooses a new name together with a new identity and occupation.
4. The teacher addresses each student by his/her name and asks the student to answer questions relevant to his/ her new occupation.
5. The students pretend they are at a party and meet new acquaintances with whom they have a brief conversation.

Note: “Suggest-opedia” was developed by the Bulgarian psychiatrist and educator George Lozanov (1978).

Community language learning

Goals

1. To learn language communicatively
2. To take responsibility for learning
3. To approach the task non-defensively, never separating in tellect from feelings

Characteristics:

1. Non-defensive learning requires security, aggression (students assert and involve themselves), attention, reflection (students think about language and their experience in learning it), retention, and discrimination (sorting out target language forms).
2. Cooperation is encouraged; the teacher and the student together make decision in class.
3. The teacher routinely probes the students’ attitudes toward learning and helps them overcome their negative feelings.
4. Particular grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary points are treated based on the students’ expressed needs. Understanding and speaking are emphasized.
5. The native language is used in conversation, instructions, and sessions for expressing feelings.
6. Learning about aspects of culture is integrated with language learning.
7. A non-threatening teaching style is encouraged, correct forms are modeled.
8. There is no specific means of evaluation but adherence to principles is urged. Intergrative tests are preferred over discrete-point tests.
9. Self-evaluation is encouraged to promote the students’ awareness of their progress.

Sample examples:

1. The students form a small circle. A student whispers to the teacher a message or meaning he/she wants to express in the native language. The teacher translates it into English and whispers it back to the student. The student repeats the teacher’s translation to the others. The rest of the students do the same.
2. A small group of students prepares a story that will be presented to the teacher and the class.
3. The students record conversations in the target language.
4. The students reflect and report on their experiences during an educational trip to Nayong Pilipino. This report consists of expressions of feelings and reactions.
5. The students transcribe utterances and conversations they have recorded for practice and analysis of linguistic forms.
6. The students analyze and study the transcription of target language sentences to focus on a particular grammar rule (eg: past perfect tense)

Note: The community language learning (CLL) method was developed by Charles A. Curran and his associates (P. G. La Forge, 1983)

Total physical response method

Goal: to promote an enjoyable learning experience with minimum stress

Characteristics:

1. Lessons begin with commands given by the teacher which the students execute.
2. Activities are novel, often humorous, and include games and skits.
3. There is teacher- student or student- student interaction: the teacher speaks, the students respond, or a student gives suggestions to another student with the teacher’s guidance.
4. Oral communication is stressed, the culture or life- style of native speakers is considered when learning the target language.
5. Meanings in the target language are often made clear through actions.
6. The students are expected to commit errors when they begin speaking. Only major errors are corrected and correction is done unobtrusively.
7. Evaluation is done through observation of the students’ action. Formal evaluation is achieved through commands given by the teacher and responded to by the students through a series of actions.

Sample activities:

1. The students listen attentively and respond physically to commands given by the teacher.

Examples: Open your books.

                  Open your notebooks.

                  Open your bags.

2. The teacher asks simple questions which the students can answer with a gesture such as poiting a figure at a person or thing.

Examples: Where is Juanita?

                  Where is the table?

                  Where is the chalkboard?

3. The teacher writes new vocabulary items and sentences to illustrate these items on the chalkboard. He/ She reads aloud each item as the students act out the sentence for that item.

Examples: brush       I brush my teeth.

                  sweep      I sweep my floor.

The students listen as the teacher reads the vocabulary items and sentences before copying the information in their notebook.

4. The students give orders to the students with the teacher’s guidance.
5. Students act out short skits.

Note: The total physical response method was developed by James Usher (1977)

Communicative approach

Goals: